Published 2026-01-10

How Security Clearance Investigations Work

What Is a Background Investigation?

When you apply for a job that requires a security clearance, the government doesn't just take your word that you're trustworthy. They investigate.

A background investigation is exactly what it sounds like: investigators dig into your past to verify what you've told them and to look for anything that might make you a security risk. They check databases, review records, and talk to people who know you. For higher clearances, they may interview you directly.

The goal isn't to find perfect people—those don't exist. The goal is to find people who are honest, stable, and not vulnerable to coercion or foreign influence. The investigation gives adjudicators the information they need to make that call.

Who Conducts the Investigation?

For most Department of Defense and contractor clearances, the Defense Counterintelligence and Security Agency (DCSA) handles the investigation^[2]. DCSA is the largest background investigation provider in the federal government.

Other agencies sometimes conduct their own investigations. Some intelligence community and diplomatic agencies have their own processes. But the standards and criteria are largely the same across the government^[4].

The Investigation Process

Here's what happens from start to finish:

Step 1: Sponsorship

You cannot request a background investigation on your own. A government agency or cleared contractor must sponsor you^[6]. This usually happens when you receive a conditional job offer—meaning the job is yours if you can get cleared.

Your sponsor initiates the investigation through the appropriate channels. For contractors, this is typically handled by the company's Facility Security Officer (FSO).

Step 2: Complete the SF-86

You'll fill out Standard Form 86, the "Questionnaire for National Security Positions," through an online system called e-QIP^[1].

The SF-86 asks for detailed information going back 7 to 10 years, including:

• Where you've lived: Every address, with dates
• Where you've worked: Every job, why you left, supervisor contact info
• Your education: Schools attended, degrees earned
• Foreign connections: Foreign nationals you know, countries you've visited, foreign financial interests
• Financial history: Bankruptcies, delinquencies, tax issues
• Criminal history: Arrests, charges, and convictions—even if expunged
• Drug and alcohol use: Illegal drug use, alcohol-related incidents
• Mental health: Certain court-ordered or violence-related treatment
• References: People who can verify your history

The form is long and detailed. The government estimates it takes about 2.5 hours to complete^[1], but gathering all the information beforehand often takes longer. You'll need addresses, dates, phone numbers, and contact information for supervisors and references going back years.

Be thorough and honest. Investigators will verify this information. Leaving things out or lying is worse than whatever you're trying to hide.

Step 3: The Investigation

Once your SF-86 is submitted and reviewed, the actual investigation begins^[3].

What investigators do:

• Database checks: Criminal records, credit reports, court records, terrorist watch lists
• Record verification: Confirming employment, education, and residence history
• Reference interviews: Talking to people you listed and people they recommend
• Subject interview: For Top Secret clearances, an investigator will typically interview you in person
• Neighborhood checks: For higher clearances, investigators may talk to neighbors and coworkers you didn't list

The depth of the investigation depends on the clearance level:

Investigators aren't there to trick you or catch you in lies. They're gathering information. But they are trained to spot inconsistencies, and they will follow up on anything that doesn't add up.

Step 4: Adjudication

After the investigation, the case goes to an adjudicator—a person who reviews all the findings and makes a decision.

Adjudicators use the "whole person" concept^[4]. They don't just look at individual red flags in isolation. They consider:

• The nature and seriousness of any concerns
• How recent the issue was
• The circumstances surrounding it
• Your age at the time
• Evidence of rehabilitation or changed behavior
• Your honesty throughout the process

There are 13 adjudicative guidelines covering everything from allegiance and foreign influence to financial responsibility and drug use. Having an issue in one area doesn't automatically disqualify you. The adjudicator weighs the whole picture.

Step 5: The Decision

You'll receive one of three outcomes:

• Granted: The investigation found no unresolved concerns. You're cleared to access classified information at that level.

• Denied: The investigation uncovered issues that couldn't be mitigated. You have the right to appeal.

• Interim clearance: Initial checks were favorable, so you can start work with limited access while the full investigation continues. Not everyone gets an interim, and it can be revoked if problems surface later.

How Long Does It Take?

Processing times vary based on clearance level, your personal history, and current backlogs^[5]:

Factors that extend timelines:

• Extensive foreign travel or contacts
• Gaps in employment or residence history
• Complex financial situations
• Issues requiring additional investigation

The fastest way through is submitting a complete, accurate SF-86 the first time and responding quickly when investigators contact you.

What Happens If You're Denied?

A denial isn't necessarily the end. You have due process rights:

• You'll receive a Statement of Reasons explaining why you were denied
• You can respond in writing with additional information or context
• For DoD clearances, you can request a hearing before the Defense Office of Hearings and Appeals (DOHA)
• An administrative judge will review your case

Many people successfully appeal initial denials by providing additional context, demonstrating rehabilitation, or correcting errors in the investigation.

Related

• How to Get a Security Clearance
• What Disqualifies You?
• Clearance Levels Explained

← Back to Guides · Browse Definitions →